Metabolic adverse effects include changes in weight, blood glucose and blood lipids. Risks vary substantially among second-generation antipsychotics. Olanzapine and clozapine are notable for substantial metabolic burdens, while other agents have different average profiles. Individual…Continue Reading
Injection-related effects can include pain, tenderness, swelling or local irritation. Their likelihood depends on the product, technique and individual factors. Some formulations have additional specific requirements or risks that need explanation before administration. A general…Continue Reading
GABA is a major inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps regulate the timing and coordination of neural activity. Glutamate can activate GABA-producing interneurons, so reduced activity at an excitatory receptor may sometimes lead to less inhibition elsewhere.…Continue Reading
Glutamate hypotheses propose that altered glutamatergic signalling contributes to schizophrenia-related symptoms and cognitive difficulties. NMDA receptor hypofunction is one influential model, particularly when considered within circuits involving inhibitory interneurons and dopamine regulation. The aim is…Continue Reading
Antipsychotics can reduce the intensity, frequency or impact of hallucinations, delusions and disorganised thinking. Improvement may involve feeling less threatened or less compelled to act on an experience before its content fully changes. Some medicines…Continue Reading
Most established antipsychotics reduce D2-mediated dopamine signalling through antagonism or partial agonism. Many also affect serotonin, histamine, adrenergic or muscarinic receptors. These additional actions help explain differences in sedation, appetite, blood pressure and other effects…Continue Reading
Dose is the amount of medicine administered, while receptor occupancy is the proportion of a receptor population engaged at a particular exposure. They are related but not equivalent. Absorption, metabolism, interactions and active metabolites influence…Continue Reading
Treatment response is the degree of improvement associated with a treatment over an appropriate period. It can be measured through symptoms, distress, functioning and the person’s own priorities. A partial response may still be valuable…Continue Reading
Intracellular signalling is the chain of events inside a cell after a receptor is activated. Dopamine receptors influence enzymes, second messengers, ion channels and proteins that regulate cellular activity. D1-like receptors generally increase cyclic AMP…Continue Reading
Safety monitoring checks for adverse effects and changes in physical health during antipsychotic treatment. Depending on the medicine and circumstances, this can include weight, blood pressure, glucose, lipids, movement symptoms and hormonal concerns. An electrocardiogram…Continue Reading